30th July 2026

Explanation - The Western Ghats are a nearly unbroken mountain chain stretching 1,500 km along India's western coast. Second only to the Himalayas in ecological importance, the Ghats are one of the eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity in the entire world. They harbour hundreds of plant and animal species found nowhere else on earth. The Ghats are not just ecologically rich — they are hydrologically critical. They act as a physical barrier against moisture-carrying monsoon winds, channelling heavy rainfall onto the coastal side. This rainfall feeds major rivers including the Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, and Periyar — rivers that sustain the livelihoods of millions across peninsular India. Importantly, unlike most protected ecosystems, the Western Ghats are densely populated and economically active. The region is famous for cash crops — pepper, cardamom, cinnamon, coffee, mango, and jackfruit. It spans six states: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. This combination of ecological fragility and human habitation is at the heart of the ESA dispute.

Explanation - Under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, the Central Government can notify certain areas as Ecologically Sensitive Areas (ESAs) — also called Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs). The idea is to regulate or prohibit activities that could damage fragile ecosystems. In an ESA, activities like mining, quarrying, red-category polluting industries, thermal power plants, and large construction and townships are either banned or heavily regulated. ESAs have previously been notified around Dahanu (Maharashtra), Mahabaleshwar-Panchgani, and the Doon Valley.

Explanation - The Gadgil Panel (2011) — The Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel, chaired by ecologist Madhav Gadgil, submitted its report in 2011. It took a strict position: the entire 1,29,037 sq km of the Ghats should be designated as ESA, with heavy cross-sectoral restrictions on development activities. States and local communities found this too restrictive and strongly opposed it.

The Kasturirangan Panel (2013) — Given the political resistance to the Gadgil report, the Centre set up a high-level working group under K. Kasturirangan, former chief of ISRO. His panel took a more calibrated approach. The panel identified 1,64,280 sq km as the Ghats' total extent. Of this, it found that 60% was already "cultural landscape" — land under human use: settlements, plantations, and agriculture. The remaining 40% (approximately 60,000 sq km) was classified as "natural landscape" — high biological richness, low human density, and home to national parks, tiger reserves, and elephant habitats. The panel recommended that only this 60,000 sq km natural landscape be notified as ESA, along with a ban on the most damaging industrial activities. The then government accepted this in principle in December 2013.

Explanation - Andromeda Galaxy is also known as M31, comparable in size to our Milky Way galaxy. It is a large spiral galaxy located approximately 2.5 million light years from Earth. It is named for its celestial location in the constellation of Andromeda. It is the closest major galaxy to the Milky Way and is visible to the naked eye. It is currently transitioning to its ‘middle age’, away from being a vibrant, active galaxy and towards a quiescent state It is a barred spiral galaxy, so-called for the bar-like structure formed by the stars in its centre. It is observed that this galaxy is moving towards the Milky Way at approximately 110 km/s.

Explanation - Kikai Caldera is a massive submarine caldera with three small islands, parts of the caldera rim, that project above sea level. It is located in the East China Sea just south of Kyushu, Japan. It is still active, producing a scattered array of minor eruptions in recent decades. Research has found evidence of new volcanic activity beneath the Kikai Caldera, pointing to the formation of a lava dome and raising concerns about its potential to erupt again.